The Freedmens Bureau - Agency to Assist Former Slaves

The Freedmens Bureau was created by the U.S. Congress near the end of the Civil War as an agency to deal with the enormous humanitarian crisis brought about by the war. Throughout the South, where most of the fighting had taken place, cities and towns were devastated. The economic system was virtually nonexistent, railroads had been destroyed, and farms had been neglected or destroyed. And four million recently freed slaves were faced with new realities of life. On March 3, 1865, the Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands. Commonly known as the Freedmens Bureau, its original charter was for one year, though it was reorganized within the war department in July 1866. The Goals of the Freedmens Bureau The Freedmens Bureau was envisioned as an agency wielding enormous power over the South. An editorial in the New York Times published on February 9, 1865, when the original bill for the creation of the bureau was being introduced in Congress, said the proposed agency would be: ... a separate department, responsible alone to the President, and supported by military power from him, to take charge of the abandoned and forfeited lands of the rebels, settle them with freedmen, guard the interests of these latter, aid in adjusting wages, in enforcing contracts, and in protecting these unfortunate people from injustice, and securing them their liberty. The task before such an agency would be immense. The four million newly freed blacks in the South were mostly uneducated and illiterate (as a result of laws regulating slavery), and a major focus of the Freedmens Bureau would be setting up schools to educate former slaves. An emergency system of feeding the population was also an immediate problem, and food rations would be distributed to the starving. It has been estimated that the Freedmens Bureau distributed 21 million food rations, with five million being given to white southerners. The program of redistributing land, which was an original goal for the Freedmens Bureau was thwarted by presidential orders. The promise of Forty Acres and a Mule, which many freedmen believed they would receive from the U.S. government, went unfulfilled. General Oliver Otis Howard Was Commissioner of the Freedmens Bureau The man chose to head the Freemens Bureau, Union General Oliver Otis Howard, was a graduate of Bowdoin College in Maine as well as the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. Howard had served throughout the Civil War, and lost his right arm in combat at the Battle of Fair Oaks, in Virginia, in 1862. While serving under Gen. Sherman during the famous March to the Sea in late 1864, Gen. Howard witnessed the many thousands of former slaves who followed Shermans troops on the advance through Georgia. Knowing of his concern for the freed slaves, President Lincoln had chosen him to be the first commissioner of the Freedmens Bureau (though Lincoln was assassinated before the job was officially offered). General Howard, who was 34 years old when he accepted the position at the Freedmens Bureau, got to work in the summer of 1865. He quickly organized the Freedmens Bureau into geographical divisions to oversee the various states. A U.S. Army officer of high rank was usually placed in charge of each division, and Howard was able to request personnel from the Army as needed. In that respect the Freedmens Bureau was a powerful entity, as its actions could be enforced by the U.S. Army, which still had a considerable presence in the South. The Freedmens Bureau Was Essentially the Government in the Defeated Confederacy When the Freedmens Bureau began operations, Howard and his officers had to essentially set up a new government in the states that had made up the Confederacy. At the time, there were no courts and virtually no law. With the backing of the U.S. Army, the Freedmens Bureau was generally successful in establishing order. However, in the late 1860s there were eruptions of lawlessness, with organized gangs, including the Ku Klux Klan, attacking blacks and whites affiliated with the Freedmens Bureau. In Gen. Howards autobiography, which he published in 1908, he devoted a chapter to the struggle against the Ku Klux Klan. Land Redistribution Did Not Happen As Intended One area in which the Freedmens Bureau did not live up to its mandate was in the area of distributing land to former slaves. Despite the rumors that families of freedmen would receive forty acres of land to farm, the lands which would have been distributed were instead returned to those who had owned the land before the Civil War by order of President Andrew Johnson. In Gen. Howards autobiography he described how he personally attended a meeting in Georgia in late 1865 at which he had to inform former slaves who had been settled onto farms that the land was being taken away from them. The failure to set former slaves up on their own farms condemned many of them to lives as impoverished sharecroppers. The Educational Programs of the Freedmens Bureau Were a Success A major focus of the Freedmens Bureau was the education of former slaves, and in that area it was generally considered a success. As many slaves had been forbidden to learn to read and write, there was a widespread need for literacy education. A number of charitable organizations set up schools, and the Freedmens Bureau even arranged for textbooks to be published. Despite incidents in which teachers were attacked and schools burned in the South, hundreds of schools were opened in the late 1860s and early 1870s. General Howard had a great interest in education, and in the late 1860s he helped to found Howard University in Washington, D.C., a historically black college which was named in his honor. Legacy of the Freedmens Bureau Most of the work of the Freedmens Bureau ended in 1869, except for its educational work, which continued until 1872. During its existence, the Freedmens Bureau was criticized for being an enforcement arm of the Radical Republicans in Congress. Virulent critics in the South condemned it constantly. And employees of the Freedmens Bureau were at times physically attacked and even murdered. Despite the criticism, the work the Freedmens Bureau accomplished, especially in its educational endeavors, was necessary, especially considering the dire situation of the South at the end of the war.

Evaluate the Contribution of the Hawthorne Studies to the...

Hawthorne Studies have been subjected to many criticisms. Yet, the evolvement of many of the management theories today would not have come about without the experiments done by Elton Mayo. This essay will cover the various aspects of management that has been refined through the findings of the tests conducted and how improvements were made to aid in the development of organisational behaviour. It will also discuss the various studies and will show how these theories implement Hawthorne studies as the foundation and the basis of the human relations movement. It will also investigate the criticisms that arise within it. In the past, managers considered workers as machinery that could be bought and sold easily. To increase production,†¦show more content†¦As proven by the Hawthorne studies where motivation is a key factor for success, Maslows hierarchy of needs applies to the same aspect. Not long after Maslows interpretation of management theory, his student, Douglas McGregor studied worker attitudes. According to McGregor, people can be assumed to belong to two groups. They are known to be Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X assumes that most people will stay away from work as they do not enjoy it and must be threatened or persuaded to put forth adequate effort(Bruce et al, 1999). He further assumes that people belonging to this group have minimal ambition and would pull away from responsibilities. These people would rather be directed and considers job security as their utmost priority. Theory Y however assumes that work is a natural process for people and most people are self driven to accomplish goals which they are responsible for. Responsibility is desired by people belonging to this group and work itself would be self satisfactory for them. McGregors study was suppose to identify that work itself could be a motivator to people. However, these assumptions of people were once applied to the management styles inaccurately. This in turn led to people being classified as part of a certain group and the individuals were not recognised for their qualities. People who were of certain qualities were notShow MoreRelatedEvaluate the Contribution of the Hawthorne Studies to the Development of Management Theory and Practice2439 Words   |  10 Pagesfour important areas of management theory: Frederick Taylor s Scientific Management, Elton Mayo s Hawthorne Works experiments and the human relations movement, Max Weber s idealized bureaucracy, and Henri Fayol s views on administration. It will provide a general description of each of these management theories together with observations on the environment in which these theories were applied and the successes that they achieved. Frederick Taylor - Scientific Management Description FrederickRead MoreManagement Thoughts and Theories1727 Words   |  7 PagesMANAGEMENT THOUGHTS AND THEORIES The industrial revolution, which began in Europe in mid-1700s, was the starting point for the development of management concepts and theories. 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Basically the aim of these experiments was to † attempt to reduce worker dissatisfaction and resist trade unionRead MoreDiscuss Scientific Management, Max Weber and Concept of Bureaucracy, the Hawthorne Experiments and Contemporary Management Thought, Giving Advantages and Disadvantages of Each One of Them.2820 Words   |  12 Pagesorganization and the development of groups and their goals. These provide the cohesion and communication that allow a rule bound organization to function. 3.0 THE HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS The Hawthorne experiments were studies that were undertook by Elton Mayo at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company between 1927 and 1932 in Illinois, a suburb of Chicago in Cicero, to study human relations approach. 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Summarize and evaluate the classical perspective on management, including scientific and administrative management, and note its relevance to contemporary managers. 3. Summarize and evaluate the behavioral perspectiv e on management, including the Hawthorne studies, human relations movement, and organizational behavior, and note its relevance to contemporary managers. 4. Summarize and evaluate the quantitativeRead MoreDIFFERENT APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT4510 Words   |  19 PagesTO MANAGEMENT Management was influenced by various disciplines like sociology, economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and even literature. Due to such multidisciplinary influences, even authors like Harold Koontz (1961) referred to management as a ‘jungle’. Even then, differences exist in the classification of approaches. Although one of the ways to classify management approaches is from the analysis of John G. Hutchinson (1971), which considers the development of managementRead MoreThe Scientific Selection And Training Of Worker Essay2880 Words   |  12 PagesAccording to Frederick taylor scientific management is movement to achieve production efficiencies and achieve ‘one best way’ should be done. Fredrick Taylor strongly believed on the basis of his observation of work method at time and Taylor set out to correct the situation by applying the scientific methods to jobs on shop floor. After years of experiment he success to increases the productivity. Strength †¢ The scientific selection and training of worker which helps to worker train properly

Nature as Reflected in American Literature Essay Example For Students

Nature as Reflected in American Literature Essay In his Poetics, Plato contemplates the nature of aesthetics and existence.He postulates that for every existing object and idea there is an absolute ideal which transcends human experience. He further concludes that art, including literature, is an aesthetic representation of real objects and ideas that is used to better understand their ideals. In theory, as an object becomes closer ideal it also becomes a better subject for the artist. American artists in particular have been given an invaluable opportunity to explore this realm of the Platonic ideal. Because the American continent and its wilderness was primarily unsullied by the ravages of civilization, the natural world found there by early settlers was much closer to being ideal than anywhere else on Earth. For this reason, nature has become one of the most important subjects of American art, especially Literature. Specific examples from American literature including the works Moby Dick, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Wald en, and To a Waterfowl can show how American authors explore the ideals of human existence through aesthetic representations of nature. William Cullen Bryant, who has been called the father of American poetry, is one of the earliest artists to capture the essence of nature in America and apply it to the human experience. In his poem To A Waterfowl he uses the example of a waterfowl to reach a better understanding of human existence. In the poem, the waterfowl is portrayed as a near-perfect creation, and it is treated with a sense of reverence. The first stanza demonstrates this:Whither, midst falling dew,While glow the heavens with the last steps of day,Far, though their rosy depths, dost thou pursueThy solitary way?Though it is not curious that a bird would be flying in the morning, Cullen presents the fowl in flight as being nearly supernatural. The bird emerges from the heavens almost like an angel and the persona addresses it in an extremely respectful tone. It can be presumed that the persona would agree that nature, embodied in the fowl, is close to what Plato would call an ideal. Bryant, through his aesthetic presentation of the bird, then deepens his understanding of human experience. The persona and, as an extension, Bryant eventually conclude, through rumination over the flight of the waterfowl, that the higher Power that guides the fowl also guides them. This use of nature to better understand certain ideals is not limited to positive examples or the representation of good forces like the Power in Waterfowl. Herman Melville illustrates the ambiguity of nature in his novel Moby Dick by representing certain evil elements of human existence with comparable elements in nature. His use of the shark is exemplary of this. He portrays the shark as the epitome of what a cannibal is. Through the creation of a well-conceived syllogism, he uses this portrayal of the shark to develop the character of Ahab. The first thing Melville does to accomplish this is placing the shark on a higher plane of being than man by saying that they are like angels well governed. This is very effective because, ultimately, sharks are closer to being ideal cannibals than any man could be. They kill with no remorse, eat their own kind dead or alive, and even attack their own bodies when wounded. This representation of a cannibal deepens the readers understanding of what an ideal cannibal is and later used by Melville when Ahab is compared to a shark. This syllogism states that if a shark is the epitome of a cannibal and Ahab is like a shark, then Ahab must also be like the epitome of a cannibal. Such use of specific parts of nature like the shark and the waterfowl are important elements in American literature, but the use of nature as an entity in itself is also widely employed. .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 , .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .postImageUrl , .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 , .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:hover , .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:visited , .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:active { border:0!important; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:active , .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182 .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udafd31a8edc94584707935cbcb65b182:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Abortion Act EssayMark Twain and Henry David Thoreau both use nature as an entity to explain certain truths of human existence. Both stress the essential role that nature plays in society and the importance of mans relationship to nature. The fashion in which each deal with this importance, however, differ greatly. Twain focuses on natures role as a refuge and a source of peace when compared to civilization. Thoreau, a transcendentalist, focuses on nature as a reflection of an inner spiritual reality.In Huckleberry Finn, Twain presents nature as a refuge for Huck and Jim. When they are alone with nature, they have time to culture their relationship, relax, and enjoy life. Hucks feelings about nature can be best summed up when he and Jim are enjoying a rainstorm in the island cave and he says, Jim, this is nice. I wouldnt want to be nowhere else but here. This idyllic state, however, is disrupted as soon as the two encounter civilization.They then encounter many hardships and must work harder to survive than when they are with nature. This is a good example of contrast used to represent an ideal. Twain shows the serenity of nature and its goodness in direct comparison with the hectic and far from ideal nature of civilization. Thoreau takes a more serious approach than Twain. He believes nature to be the highest physical reality on Earth, transcending human experience and only by understanding nature can a person understand himself. He would most likely agree that aesthetic representations of nature are the key to deepening human understanding of existence. His novel Walden is based on such aesthetic representations. He says that I went into the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. This shows the almost stoic devotion that he has to finding truth in nature. He intends to learn from it and make himself vulnerable to it. Clearly Thoreau believes that nature is close to a Platonic ideal, the truth. He says that nature holds the essential facts of life and through his writing, he becomes closer to nature itself, and therefore closer to the truth. The same is true in some way also for Twain, Melville, and Bryant. This is the key to American Literature.If art is truly a representation of some impalpable ideal made in the hopes of better understanding existence, then nature has been the greatest vehicle for art in America. Since the settling of this continent, the authors of America have been greatly affected by a wild, beautiful, and almost ideal nature. American Literature, therefore, has taken nature in as its most important and loved subject. Category: English

Isotopes and Its Uses free essay sample

ISOTOPES History of the term: In the bottom right corner of JJ Thomsons photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the two isotopes of neon: neon-20 and neon-22. The term isotope was coined in 1913 by Margaret Todd, a Scottish physician, during a conversation with Frederick Soddy (to whom she was distantly related by marriage). [4] Soddy, a chemist at Glasgow University, explained that it appeared from his investigations as if each position in the periodic table was occupied by multiple entities. Hence Todd made the suggestion, which Soddy adopted, that a suitable name for such an entity ould be the Greek term for at the same place. Soddys own studies were of radioactive (unstable) atoms. The first observation of different stable isotopes for an element was by J. J. Thomson in 1913. As part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays, Thomson channeled streams of neon ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path. We will write a custom essay sample on Isotopes and Its Uses or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Each stream created a glowing patch on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate patches of light on the photographic plate (see mage), which suggested two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the rest. F. W. Aston subsequently discovered different stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph. Isotopes are different types of atoms (nuclides) of the same chemical element, each having a different number of neutrons. In a corresponding manner, isotopes differ in mass number (or number of nucleons) but never in atomic number. l] The number of protons (the atomic number) is the same because that is what characterizes a chemical element. For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14, respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, so the neutron numbers in these isotopes of carbon are therefore 12-6 = 6, 13-6 = 7, and 14-6 = 8, respectively. A nuclide is an atomic nucleus with a specified composition of protons and neutrons. The nuclide concept emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, while the isotope concept emphasizes chemical over nuclear. The neutron number has drastic effects on nuclear properties, but negligible effects on chemical properties. Since isotope is the older term, it is better known, and is still sometimes used in contexts where nuclide might be more appropriate, such as nuclear technology. An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number implicitly) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e. g. helium-3, carbon-12, carbon-13, iodine-131 and uranium-238). When a chemical symbol is used, e. g. C for carbon, standard notation is to indicate the number of nucleons with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a subscript at the lower eft (e. g. 32He, 42He, 126C, 146C, 235920, and 239920). some isotopes are radioactive and are therefore described as radioisotopes or radionuclides, while others have never been observed to undergo radioactive decay and are described as stable stable isotopes. Th ere are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth[2], of which 288 are primordial nuclides. These include 31 nuclides with very long half lives (over 80 million years) and 257 which are formally considered as stable[2]. About 30 of these stable isotopes have actually been observed to decay, but with half lives too long to be estimated so far. This leaves 227 nuclides that have not been observed to decay at all. Numbers of isotopes per element Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element tin). Xenon is the only element that has nine stable isotopes. Cadmium has eight stable isotopes. Five elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, eight have four stable isotopes, nine have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting 180m73Ta as stable), and 26 elements have only a single stable sotope (of these, 19 are so-called mononuclidic elements, having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well). [5] In total, there are 257 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 257/80 = 3. 2 isotopes per element. Even/odd N I Mass IE 10 1 All I stable | 145 | 101 12461 Longitved 120 16 126 1 primordial | 165 | 107 12721 Even and odd nucleons numbers The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. Adding neutrons to isotopes can vary their nuclear spins and nuclear shapes, causing differences in neutron capture cross-sections and gamma spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance properties. Even mass number Beta decay of an even-even nucleus produces an odd-odd nucleus, and vice versa. An even number of protons or of neutrons are more stable (lower binding energy) because of pairing effects, so even-even nuclei are much more stable than odd-odd. One effect is that there are few stable odd-odd nuclei, but another effect is to prevent eta decay of many even-even nuclei into another even-even nucleus of the same mass number but lower energy, because decay proceeding one step at a time would have to pass through an odd-odd nucleus of higher energy. This makes for a larger number of stable even-even nuclei, up to three for some mass numbers, and up to seven for some atomic (proton) numbers. Double beta decay directly from even-even to even-even skipping over an odd-odd nuclide is only occasionally possible, and even then with a half-life greater than a billion times the age of the universe. Even- ass-number nuclides have integer spin and are bosons. Even proton-even neutron Even/odd Z, N I IEE 100 1 EO IOE I Longlived | 16 14 12 14 1 primordial 1 15619 155 152 1 For example, the extreme stability of helium-4 due to a double pairing of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents any nuclides containing five or eight nucleons from existing for long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements during fusion formation in stars (see triple alpha process). There are 141 stable even-even isotopes, forming 55% of the 257 stable isotopes. There are also 16 primordial longlived even-even isotopes. As a result, many of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 have many primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. All even-even nuclides have spin O in their ground state. Odd proton-odd neutron Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons: the first four odd-odd nuclides 21 H, 63Li, 105B, and 147N (where changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided proton- neutron ratio) and 180m73Ta, which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental attempts[6]. Also, four long-lived radioactive odd-odd nuclides (4019K, 5023V, 13857La, 17671 Lu) occur naturally. Of these 9 primordial odd-odd nuclides, only 147N is the most common isotope of a common element, because it is a part of the CNO cycle; 63Li and 105B are minority isotopes of elements that are rare compared to other light elements, while the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of their elements. Few odd-odd nuclides (and none of the primordial ones) have spin O in the ground state. Odd mass number There is only one beta-stable nuclide per odd mass number because there is no ifference in binding energy between even-odd and odd-even comparable to that between even-even and odd-odd, and other nuclides of the same mass are free to beta decay towards the lowest-energy one. For mass numbers 5, 147, 151, and 209 and up, the one beta-stable isobar is able to alpha decay, so that there are no stable isotopes with these mass numbers. This gives a total of 101 stable isotopes with odd mass numbers.